When Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, many believed the country was on its way to self-rule. The Malolos Congress, made up of ilustrados (wealthy and educated Filipinos), was tasked with drafting a constitution to show that Filipinos could govern themselves. However, some of these same leaders later changed their stance.
By 1899, key ilustrados—such as Cayetano Arellano, Benito Legarda, and Pardo de Tavera—began supporting American rule. They believed that Filipinos were not ready for full independence and that the U.S. could guide them. This decision to collaborate with the Americans had a huge impact on the future of the Philippines, shaping how the country was governed for years to come.
The Role of the Ilustrados in the Malolos Congress
When Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence in 1898, the next crucial step was to create a government that would represent the Filipino people. To do this, Aguinaldo turned to the ilustrados, the country’s educated elite. These men came from wealthy and influential families, giving them the social standing and education necessary to shape the country’s future.
Aguinaldo’s Appointment of the Ilustrados
Aguinaldo appointed several ilustrados to the Malolos Congress, which was tasked with drafting the first Philippine Constitution. Among the key figures were Cayetano Arellano, Pedro Paterno, Benito Legarda, and others. These men were seen as capable of building a legal framework that could demonstrate to the world, particularly to the United States, that Filipinos could govern themselves effectively.
Goal: Proving Filipino Capacity for Self-Governance
The main purpose of the Malolos Congress and the constitution it created was to prove that the Filipinos were ready for self-rule. Aguinaldo and the ilustrados wanted to show the Americans that their intervention was unnecessary. They hoped that by drafting a solid constitution, the United States would recognize Philippine independence and support the nation’s efforts to establish its own government.
Initial Support of Aguinaldo’s Declaration
In the early stages, the ilustrados were fully behind Aguinaldo’s declaration of independence. They participated actively in the Malolos Congress and embraced the idea of a free and independent Philippines. Their work on the constitution was a reflection of their desire to build a stable and democratic government that could stand on its own. This initial unity, however, would later change as some ilustrados began to favor American rule over continued independence.
Shift in Loyalties: July 24, 1899
On July 24, 1899, a significant change occurred among some of the key Filipino leaders who had once supported independence. Cayetano Arellano, Benito Legarda, and Pardo de Tavera, three prominent ilustrados, testified before the Schurman Commission. This commission had been sent by the U.S. government to assess the situation in the Philippines and explore ways to establish American control.
Testimony Before the Schurman Commission
During their testimony, Arellano, Legarda, and Tavera declared that the Filipinos were not yet ready to govern themselves. They argued that the country lacked the experience and capacity for self-rule and that American guidance was necessary to help the Philippines develop. Their statements marked a turning point in the struggle for independence, as they signaled a willingness to collaborate with the U.S. rather than continue the fight for complete freedom.
A Contrast in Visions
The stance taken by the ilustrados contrasted sharply with the aspirations of the Filipino masses. While many Filipinos, particularly those who fought in the revolution, wanted full independence from foreign rule, the ilustrados saw American influence as a way to stabilize the country and fill the power vacuum left by Spain. The ilustrados, coming from wealthy and educated backgrounds, feared that the masses, who were largely uneducated and poor, would not be able to effectively govern the nation.
This divide between the elites and the general population created tensions within the independence movement. The ilustrados’ willingness to accept American control in exchange for autonomy and political positions reflected their desire for order and stability, but it also alienated many Filipinos who were still fighting for true sovereignty.
The Formation of Partido Federal
As the Philippine-American War continued, some key Filipino leaders chose a path of collaboration with the new colonial power. One of the most prominent figures in this shift was Pedro Paterno, who had served as the head of Emilio Aguinaldo’s cabinet. After being captured by American forces on April 25, 1900, Paterno was granted amnesty on June 21, 1900. Wasting no time, he quickly aligned himself with the pro-American faction of the ilustrados.
Paterno’s Role in Forming Partido Federal
Pedro Paterno played a significant role in the creation of the Partido Federal, a political party that openly supported American rule. On December 23, 1900, the party was officially founded in a meeting held at No. 37 Calle de Villalobos in the Quiapo district of Manila. The meeting was attended by 119 other pro-American Filipinos, many of whom were prominent members of the upper class, such as Cayetano Arellano, Felipe Buencamino, Pardo de Tavera, and Benito Legarda.
The Party’s Goal: Philippine Statehood
The main goal of the Partido Federal was to achieve Philippine statehood within the United States. The party’s leaders believed that becoming a U.S. state would bring stability and development to the country. They argued that, under American rule, the Philippines could modernize and progress, and that statehood would provide Filipinos with a voice in the U.S. government.
Unpopularity of the Statehood Platform
However, the platform of statehood was deeply unpopular among both Filipinos and Americans. For most Filipinos, the idea of being absorbed into the United States conflicted with their desire for full independence. They had fought against Spanish colonialism and saw American rule as another form of foreign domination.
On the American side, statehood for the Philippines was met with resistance. Many U.S. officials, including Secretary of War Elihu Root, rejected the idea of making the Philippines a state. Root was particularly blunt in his opposition, stating that adding the Philippines as a state would create a “serious problem.” He expressed concerns about the racial and cultural differences between Filipinos and Americans, comparing the potential inclusion of Filipinos to the existing racial tensions with African Americans in the U.S. Root’s remarks reflected the broader reluctance among U.S. leaders to fully integrate the Philippines into the American political system.
A Party Without Support
With opposition from both sides, Partido Federal’s platform of statehood never gained the widespread support it needed. While the party did succeed in securing positions of power for its leaders, it ultimately failed to resonate with the majority of Filipinos, who remained committed to the fight for true independence.
The Impact of the Ilustrado Collaboration
The decision of several key ilustrados to collaborate with the American colonial government had far-reaching consequences for the Philippines. These former officials of Emilio Aguinaldo’s government, including figures like Cayetano Arellano, Benito Legarda, and Pedro Paterno, played a critical role in helping the United States justify its colonization of the country.
Justifying American Colonization
By siding with the Americans, these influential ilustrados gave the U.S. government a powerful tool in its efforts to present its colonization as legitimate. Their cooperation suggested that prominent Filipinos—the nation’s educated elite—welcomed American rule. This narrative was used to convince both the American public and the international community that the U.S. was acting in the best interests of the Philippines. The participation of respected Filipino leaders made it easier for the Americans to argue that they were not imposing control, but rather providing guidance to a nation that needed it.
The Illusion of Filipino Cooperation
The collaboration of the ilustrados created an illusion of widespread Filipino acceptance of American authority. U.S. officials portrayed the support of these upper-class Filipinos as proof that the Philippines was eager to embrace American governance. This image was carefully crafted to overshadow the ongoing resistance of Filipino revolutionaries, who continued to fight for independence in various parts of the country. The involvement of the ilustrados helped to downplay the intensity of the conflict, making it appear as though the transition to American rule was smooth and welcomed by all.
Belittling Filipino Resistance
The American government used the collaboration of the ilustrados to diminish the significance of the remaining Filipino resistance. By focusing on the support of influential Filipinos, the U.S. was able to portray the resistance fighters as a small, isolated group of insurgents rather than a widespread movement. This allowed the U.S. to label the ongoing struggle as a minor rebellion rather than a legitimate fight for independence. As a result, the actions of Aguinaldo’s forces and other revolutionaries were belittled, and their cause was portrayed as out of step with the desires of the “more reasonable” Filipinos who had aligned with the Americans.
Federalistas’ Role in the Surrender of Insurrectos
As the Philippine-American War dragged on, the Partido Federal played a significant role in weakening Filipino resistance to American rule. Led by prominent ilustrados who had aligned with the Americans, the party actively sought to convince Filipino revolutionaries—referred to as “insurrectos”—to surrender and accept the new colonial government.
Negotiating the Surrender of Resistance Leaders
The leaders of the Partido Federal, using their influence and social standing, approached key figures in the Filipino resistance. Their message was simple: the war was unwinnable, and continued fighting would only bring more suffering to the Filipino people. The Federalistas promoted the idea that peace under American rule would allow the country to rebuild and move toward progress. These efforts were aimed at encouraging both military officers and their soldiers to lay down their arms in exchange for amnesty and the promise of better opportunities under American administration.
The Surrender of Officers and Soldiers
By mid-1901, the efforts of the Partido Federal had a noticeable impact. According to reports, the party was instrumental in negotiating the surrender of 220 “insurrecto” officers and 2,640 soldiers. These surrenders represented a significant blow to the resistance movement, as more fighters abandoned the struggle for independence. While some Filipino leaders and revolutionaries continued to resist, the steady stream of surrenders weakened their efforts, making it increasingly difficult to maintain a unified front against the Americans.
Responses to Ilustrado Collaboration
The collaboration of the ilustrados with the American colonial government sparked strong reactions among Filipino revolutionaries who remained committed to the fight for independence. Many saw the ilustrados’ actions as a betrayal of the revolutionary cause and a direct threat to the ongoing struggle. Among the most notable figures to react fiercely was General Juan Cailles, one of Emilio Aguinaldo’s key military leaders.
Gen. Juan Cailles’ Reaction: Swift and Severe
General Juan Cailles, who served as the military governor of Laguna and parts of Tayabas (now Quezon province), responded with anger to the increasing number of ilustrados aligning with the Americans. To him, their collaboration was a betrayal not only of Aguinaldo’s government but also of the entire Filipino independence movement. In February 1901, Cailles issued a harsh directive: all known collaborators, especially members of the Partido Federal and others seeking peace with the Americans, were to be shot on sight without trial.
This order led to the assassination of several suspected collaborators, marking a period of heightened violence and deepening divisions within the Filipino revolutionary ranks. Cailles’ aggressive response reflected the deep frustration felt by many revolutionaries, who believed that the ilustrados had abandoned the fight for personal gain.
Cailles’ Surrender and Change of Allegiance
Despite his firm stance against collaborators, General Cailles eventually faced the same reality that other revolutionary leaders had encountered—the overwhelming power of the American military. On June 24, 1901, Cailles himself surrendered to the Americans, recognizing that continued resistance would likely lead to more loss of life without achieving independence.
In a striking shift, just weeks after his surrender, Cailles aligned himself with the very group he had previously targeted. On July 16, 1901, General Miguel Malvar, one of the remaining leaders of the Filipino resistance, outlawed Cailles and condemned him for abandoning the cause. Nevertheless, Cailles joined the Partido Federal shortly after his surrender and became a member of its directorate. His involvement in the party, which had been formed to promote American rule and statehood, symbolized his complete change in allegiance.
A Pragmatic Choice or a Betrayal?
Cailles’ decision to switch sides, like that of other ilustrados, reflected the complex and difficult choices faced by Filipino leaders during the war. For some, collaboration with the Americans was seen as a pragmatic way to avoid further bloodshed and ensure a place in the future political landscape of the Philippines. However, to many revolutionaries and common Filipinos, these choices were viewed as betrayals of the hard-fought battle for true independence.
Rewards for Collaboration
The ilustrados who collaborated with the American colonial government were handsomely rewarded for their support. By aligning themselves with the new regime, these leaders secured prominent positions in the emerging political structure of the Philippines under U.S. control. Their cooperation not only helped legitimize American rule but also ensured their influence in the future governance of the country.
Cayetano Arellano’s Appointment as Chief Justice
One of the most significant rewards for collaboration came on June 11, 1901, when Cayetano Arellano, one of the first ilustrados to side with the Americans, was appointed as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. Arellano’s position as Chief Justice solidified his status as a key figure in the U.S.-backed administration, allowing him to shape the legal system of the country under American colonial rule.
Florentino Torres Appointed as Associate Justice
Just days after Arellano’s appointment, another ilustrado, Florentino Torres, was named Associate Justice of the Supreme Court on June 17, 1901. Like Arellano, Torres had collaborated with the Americans early on, and his appointment to the judiciary further demonstrated how American authorities placed trusted Filipino elites in positions of power.
Other Ilustrado Collaborators in High Positions
Beyond the judiciary, other ilustrado collaborators were given high-ranking roles in the U.S.-controlled Philippine government. These appointments ensured that the political and social elite of the Philippines, who had favored American rule, maintained significant influence during the early years of the colonial administration.
Benito Legarda and Pardo de Tavera in the Second Philippine Commission
Two prominent ilustrados, Benito Legarda and Pardo de Tavera, were appointed to the Second Philippine Commission, the legislative body created by the U.S. to govern the Philippines. This commission, established by President William McKinley on March 16, 1900, had control over legislative and executive decisions in the country. Legarda and Pardo de Tavera’s inclusion in the commission underscored the importance of collaboration in securing political power. They helped shape policies that favored American interests while maintaining influence over the local population.
Pedro Paterno’s Appointment to the Manila Municipal Board
Pedro Paterno, another ilustrado who had once served Aguinaldo but later aligned with the Americans, also received a prestigious post. He was appointed to the Manila municipal board, where he played a role in local governance under American rule. Paterno’s shift from revolutionary leader to collaborator exemplified how opportunism and pragmatism led some Filipino elites to benefit from the new colonial system.
Conclusion
The collaboration of the ilustrados with the American colonial government had a lasting impact on the Philippines. While they were rewarded with powerful positions, their actions helped the U.S. justify its control over the country.
By aligning with the Americans, these Filipino elites created an image of cooperation, even as many continued to resist foreign rule. Their decisions shaped the political landscape of the Philippines, influencing its path under American rule for years to come.