The Second Battle of Manila took place on February 22-23, 1899, during the Filipino-American War. After the first battle in early February, American forces had pushed the Filipino troops back and were waiting for reinforcements. Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo used this break to plan a surprise attack to retake Manila.
Aguinaldo’s forces aimed to set key districts of the city on fire and cause chaos. The attack began at night, leading to confusion and fear among the people of Manila. Although the plan was bold and well thought out, it ultimately failed due to a lack of coordination and firepower. This battle, however, showed the determination of the Filipino forces to fight for their independence.
Background Leading to the Battle
The events leading to the Second Battle of Manila were shaped by the earlier fighting and the strategies of both the American and Filipino forces. After the First Battle of Manila, both sides regrouped and prepared for the next stage of the conflict. Here’s a look at the key moments leading to the battle.
Recap of the First Battle of Manila (February 4-10, 1899)
The First Battle of Manila took place in early February 1899. It marked the beginning of open conflict between American forces and Filipino revolutionaries. The Americans, under Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, managed to push back the Filipino troops in Manila and its surrounding suburbs. This battle set the stage for the intense fighting that would follow.
Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis’s Decision to Wait for Reinforcements
After the initial success in the First Battle of Manila, Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis made a strategic decision to halt his advance and wait for reinforcements from the United States. Although the Americans had gained ground, Otis was cautious and wanted to strengthen his forces before launching further attacks. This pause gave the Filipino forces time to regroup and plan their next move.
Emilio Aguinaldo’s Strategy to Reorganize and Plan the Recapture of Manila
While the Americans waited, Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo took advantage of the lull in fighting. He reorganized his forces and began planning a bold counterattack to retake Manila. Aguinaldo knew that a surprise attack could catch the Americans off guard and possibly turn the tide of the war in favor of Filipino independence.
Aguinaldo’s strategy involved using the cover of night and fire to create confusion and panic. His plan was to target key districts in Manila and ignite large fires to distract the Americans and weaken their defenses.
Aguinaldo’s Plan to Set Key Districts on Fire
Aguinaldo identified three major districts in Manila—Tondo, Santa Cruz, and Malate—as the primary targets for his attack. These districts were important both strategically and economically. By setting them on fire, Aguinaldo hoped to cause widespread chaos and create an opening for his troops to infiltrate the city.
The fires were meant to serve as a diversion, allowing Filipino forces to push deep into the heart of Manila. Aguinaldo believed that a sudden, well-coordinated attack could overwhelm the American defenses and give his forces the upper hand.
Harper’s Weekly, April 24, 1899 edition, drawn by G.W. Peters.
The Night of the Attack (February 22, 1899)
On the night of February 22, 1899, the Filipino forces put their plan into action. At around 8:00 p.m., a fire broke out in the Santa Cruz district of Manila, marking the beginning of the attack. This fire was no accident—it was part of Emilio Aguinaldo’s strategy to create chaos and confusion among the American forces. The flames quickly spread through the district, igniting one of the most dramatic nights of the war.
Fire Breaks Out in the Santa Cruz District
Santa Cruz was a wealthy area of Manila, known for its high-end properties and important commercial establishments. Located along the Pasig River, it housed many warehouses that played a key role in the city’s trade. Foreign businessmen preferred the district for its convenience, as it allowed for the fast transport of goods via boats along the river.
The fire that started in Santa Cruz spread rapidly, fueled by the district’s dense buildings and warehouses. By targeting this crucial area, Aguinaldo’s forces aimed to cripple the American occupation and disrupt the city’s commerce.
John Bass’s Account of “Manila’s Night of Terror”
John Bass, a correspondent for Harper’s Magazine, was in Manila that night and described the events in vivid detail. He referred to the night as “Manila’s Night of Terror,” capturing the fear and panic that spread through the city as the fires raged on. Bass’s account offers a firsthand glimpse into the chaos, with flames lighting up the night sky and civilians fleeing their homes in terror.
According to Bass, the fire wasn’t the only threat that night. The sounds of gunfire and bugle calls from Filipino forces added to the confusion, making it difficult for the Americans to respond effectively.
Fires Spread Towards the Escolta Business Area
As the fire in Santa Cruz grew, it began to move toward the Escolta business district. Escolta was a major commercial area in Manila, home to some of the most important shops and businesses in the city. The flames threatened to destroy not only valuable property but also the economic backbone of Manila.
The growing fire forced the Americans to act quickly, but they soon encountered another challenge—sabotage.
Sabotage of Fire-Fighting Efforts
As the Americans scrambled to put out the fire, John Bass reported an alarming incident. Someone was intentionally sabotaging the fire-fighting efforts. According to his account, a native man was caught cutting the fire hose with a large knife. The man was believed to be part of the Filipino resistance, and the sabotage added to the growing chaos of the night.
One American soldier saw the man damaging the hose and reacted by striking him with his rifle, breaking the man’s back. This incident highlighted the desperation of the situation, as even the basic efforts to contain the fire were being undermined.
The Filipino Offensive
As the fires raged in Manila, Filipino forces, led by Col. Francisco “Paco” Roman, launched a daring offensive. Their goal was to infiltrate the American rear lines and push toward the Tondo district, a key area in the city.
Col. Francisco “Paco” Roman’s Infiltration of the American Rear Lines
Col. Francisco “Paco” Roman, one of General Luna’s trusted officers, led a force of Filipino soldiers in a bold infiltration of the American rear lines. Using the cover of darkness and the chaos caused by the fires, Roman and his men managed to bypass American defenses and push towards Tondo, a district just north of the city center. This move caught the Americans off guard, as they were preoccupied with containing the fires and restoring order in the city.
Roman’s forces managed to reach deep into American-held territory, marking a significant step forward in the Filipino offensive. However, their progress would soon be challenged by the unfolding events.
Fire Spreading to Tondo District
As Roman’s forces advanced, the fires that had started in Santa Cruz began to spread toward the Tondo district. Tondo, like other parts of Manila, was densely populated and full of wooden structures that quickly caught fire. The growing flames added another layer of confusion to the battle, as residents of Tondo fled their homes and the American troops scrambled to defend their positions.
The fire, combined with Roman’s infiltration, made Tondo a focal point of the Filipino offensive. It created an atmosphere of chaos and panic that the Filipino forces hoped to exploit.
Filipino Guerrilla Attacks and Confusion Among American Troops
The Filipino forces employed guerrilla tactics throughout the night, with soldiers launching surprise attacks on American positions. Bugles blared through the streets, adding to the confusion as the Americans struggled to distinguish between friendly and enemy forces. The suddenness of these attacks, coupled with the noise and fire, made it difficult for the Americans to organize a coordinated defense.
The guerrilla attacks were effective in sowing panic among the American troops. Many were unsure of where the next assault would come from, and the combination of flames, smoke, and gunfire turned the streets of Manila into a battlefield where visibility was limited, and danger lurked around every corner.
American Defense on Calle Iris Near Bilibid Prison
Despite the chaos, the American forces managed to regroup and establish a defensive position on Calle Iris, near Bilibid Prison. This location became a critical point of defense for the Americans, as it allowed them to hold back the advancing Filipino forces. Reinforcements were sent to the area, and the American troops dug in, determined to prevent the Filipinos from breaking through.
The fighting on Calle Iris was intense, with both sides exchanging gunfire throughout the night. The Americans managed to hold their ground, preventing Roman’s forces from making further progress into Tondo. The resistance on Calle Iris marked a turning point in the battle, as the Filipino offensive began to lose momentum in the face of increasing American firepower and reinforcements.
Key Events of the Battle
The Second Battle of Manila featured a series of critical moments that determined its outcome. Despite the initial successes of the Filipino forces, the Americans were prepared for the assault, leading to intense street fighting and strategic maneuvers that shaped the battle’s final stages.
Lucio Lucas’s Failed Attempt to Reach the Meisic Police Station in Binondo
One of the key objectives of the Filipino offensive was the Meisic police station in the Binondo district, a strategic point that would have given the Filipinos greater control of the area. Col. Lucio Lucas, a trusted officer under General Antonio Luna, led the charge toward Meisic. However, the attempt to seize the police station was unsuccessful. The Americans had anticipated this move and were well-prepared, blocking Lucas and his forces before they could reach their target.
Lucas’s failed attempt marked a setback for the Filipinos, as the Meisic police station was a crucial objective in their overall plan to disrupt American control of Manila.
Americans Had Prior Knowledge of the Attack and Were Prepared
Unknown to the Filipinos, the Americans had learned about the planned attack before it occurred. With this intelligence, they were able to reinforce key positions and prepare for the offensive. This allowed the Americans to counter many of the Filipinos’ movements and hold strategic points, such as the Meisic police station.
The prior knowledge gave the Americans a significant advantage during the battle, helping them limit the effectiveness of the Filipino forces despite their initial success in infiltrating parts of the city.
Lucas’s Retreat and Subsequent Hand-to-Hand Combat on Calle Azcarraga
After failing to capture the Meisic police station, Lucio Lucas and his men were forced to retreat. They moved toward Calle Azcarraga (modern-day Recto Avenue), a critical street in the northern part of Manila. During the retreat, Lucas’s forces encountered American troops, leading to fierce hand-to-hand combat.
The fighting on Calle Azcarraga was intense, with Filipino forces desperately trying to break through the American lines. Despite their efforts, the Filipinos were unable to hold their ground and were eventually pushed back, further weakening their position in the city.
American Counterattack on February 23 with Fresh Troops and Gunboats
On the morning of February 23, the Americans launched a major counterattack. With fresh troops arriving overnight and additional firepower from gunboats positioned along the Pasig River, the Americans were ready to retake control of the city. The combined force of infantry and naval support allowed the Americans to strike back at the Filipinos, pushing them out of key areas.
The counterattack was decisive. The Filipino forces, which had initially gained ground during the night, were now on the defensive, struggling to hold their positions as the Americans advanced with superior numbers and firepower.
Filipinos Pushed Back into Tondo
As the American counterattack intensified, the Filipinos were gradually forced to retreat into the Tondo district. Tondo, already partially ablaze from the fires set earlier, became the last line of defense for the Filipino forces. The Americans advanced steadily, reclaiming territory and driving the Filipinos further back.
In Tondo, the Filipino soldiers fought valiantly to slow the American advance, but they were outnumbered and outgunned.
Resistance at the Tramway Station and Blockhouse Until Running Out of Ammunition
Despite the overwhelming odds, some Filipino forces made a final stand at a tramway station and a nearby blockhouse in Tondo. Col. Francisco “Paco” Roman’s men, who had led the initial offensive into the district, dug in and resisted the American assault for as long as they could. The defenders at the blockhouse held their position, hoping to delay the Americans and give the remaining Filipino forces time to regroup.
However, the lack of ammunition proved to be a major issue. After hours of fierce resistance, the Filipinos at the tramway station and blockhouse were forced to retreat. Their defense, though brave, could not hold up against the better-supplied American forces.
With this final retreat, the Second Battle of Manila came to an end. The Filipinos had fought with determination, but the Americans’ preparedness, reinforcements, and firepower ultimately secured their victory in the battle.
Aftermath and Outcome
The aftermath of the Second Battle of Manila left both sides reflecting on the events and mistakes that shaped its outcome. General Antonio Luna, one of the key leaders of the Filipino forces, reported the results of the battle to Emilio Aguinaldo and offered sharp criticism, while the Americans, led by Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, took stock of their own near-miss.
General Antonio Luna’s Report to Aguinaldo and His Criticism of the Cavite Soldiers
After the battle, General Antonio Luna sent a report to Aguinaldo detailing the outcome and the reasons for the failure. Luna did not hold back in his criticism, particularly targeting the Cavite soldiers, many of whom were Aguinaldo’s provincemates. Luna accused them of refusing to attack when ordered, a hesitation that he believed cost them a potential victory. The failure of these soldiers to engage the enemy at critical moments was, in Luna’s view, one of the key reasons why the offensive faltered.
Luna’s Belief in the Lack of Coordination and Firepower
In addition to criticizing the Cavite soldiers, Luna also pointed out broader issues in the Filipino offensive. He believed that a lack of coordination between different units, combined with insufficient firepower, doomed their chances of success. While the initial attack had been bold and well-planned, it quickly unraveled as communication broke down and Filipino forces struggled to maintain pressure on the American defenses. Luna’s forces had managed to make significant inroads during the night, but they could not sustain the momentum needed for a full victory.
General Otis’s Acknowledgment of the Initial Success of the Filipino Attack
Despite the ultimate failure of the Filipino offensive, General Otis, the American commander, recognized the effectiveness of the initial assault. In his official reports, Otis acknowledged that the attack had been “successful in its inception and primary stages.” The Filipinos had caught the Americans off guard, infiltrating parts of the city and causing significant disruption. The fires, combined with guerrilla tactics, created confusion among the American troops, forcing them to scramble to hold their positions.
Otis’s Horror at the Boldness of the Plan
Otis was not only impressed but also horrified by the boldness of the Filipino plan. The coordinated attack, which involved setting key districts on fire while infiltrating American lines, was a daring move that could have led to a much more devastating outcome for the Americans if not for their prior knowledge and reinforcements. The brazenness of Luna’s strategy underscored the seriousness of the Filipino resistance and their determination to fight for independence, even when facing overwhelming odds.
The American Counter-Battery Neutralizing Luna’s Artillery
One of the key factors that contributed to the failure of the Filipino offensive was the neutralization of Luna’s artillery. General Luna had managed to deploy a single Krupp breech-loading cannon, manned by Spanish prisoners, to provide artillery support for his forces. The cannon, which fired six-inch projectiles weighing 80 pounds, was aimed at a critical target: the headquarters of General Arthur MacArthur, located at the house of Engineer Horace L. Higgins.
The Target: MacArthur’s Headquarters at Engineer Horace L. Higgins’s House
Higgins’s house, where MacArthur’s headquarters were set up, was a vital command post for the American forces. Luna’s plan to target it with artillery fire was part of his broader strategy to disrupt the Americans and weaken their leadership. However, the Krupp cannon was quickly neutralized by American counter-battery fire, which effectively silenced Luna’s only artillery support. Without sustained artillery fire, the Filipinos lost a crucial element of their attack, making it harder for them to hold their positions against the well-armed American troops.
Casualties
The Second Battle of Manila was a brutal and costly encounter, with both sides suffering significant losses. However, the disparity in casualties between the American and Filipino forces underscored the challenges faced by the Filipino revolutionaries, who were outgunned and outnumbered.
American Casualties
According to official reports from the U.S. War Department, the American forces experienced relatively light casualties compared to the Filipino troops. The total number of American soldiers killed during the battle was reported to be 5, with an additional 34 wounded. These casualties were largely the result of the intense firefights and the chaos caused by the fires that spread across the city during the attack. The relatively low number of American deaths can be attributed to their defensive positions, superior firepower, and the reinforcements that arrived during the battle.
Filipino Casualties
In contrast, the Filipino forces suffered far greater losses. An estimated 500 Filipino soldiers were either killed or wounded during the battle. These casualties were the result of both the fierce combat that took place in the streets of Manila and the eventual American counterattacks. The high casualty rate reflected the Filipinos’ lack of resources, such as ammunition and heavy weaponry, which left them vulnerable to the better-armed and organized American forces.
The large number of Filipino casualties also highlighted the intensity of their resistance. Despite facing a much stronger enemy, Filipino soldiers continued to fight, holding their positions in places like the tramway station and blockhouse in Tondo until they ran out of ammunition. Their determination to resist, even in the face of overwhelming odds, was a testament to their commitment to the cause of independence.
The Human Cost of the Battle
Beyond the soldiers, civilians in Manila were also affected by the battle. The fires that broke out in the districts of Santa Cruz, Tondo, and Binondo caused widespread destruction, displacing many residents and leading to property losses. While the exact number of civilian casualties remains unclear, the fires and fighting likely resulted in additional deaths and injuries among the population of Manila.
In total, the Second Battle of Manila was a costly engagement, especially for the Filipino forces. The heavy casualties on their side, combined with the destruction of large parts of the city, marked the battle as a significant but ultimately unsuccessful attempt to regain control of Manila.
Conclusion
The Second Battle of Manila was a bold but ultimately unsuccessful attempt by the Filipino forces to recapture the city from the Americans. While the initial attack created chaos and confusion, a lack of coordination and firepower led to the Filipinos’ defeat.
The Americans, though caught off guard, managed to regroup and counterattack, pushing the Filipinos back. Despite the losses, the battle showed the determination of the Filipino soldiers to fight for their independence, even against overwhelming odds.
Though the battle ended in defeat for the Filipino forces, it remains a significant event in the history of the Filipino-American War. The bravery and tenacity shown by General Luna and his men demonstrated the strength of the Filipino resistance. Even in the face of superior American military power, the struggle for independence continued, leaving a lasting legacy in the fight for the Philippines’ freedom.