In May 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines to lead the fight for independence from Spain. After years of exile, he was called back by American officials who promised support in exchange for help in the Spanish-American War. Aguinaldo believed that with the U.S. on their side, the Philippines could finally be free.
He arrived in Manila on May 19, 1898, ready to resume command of the Filipino forces. However, despite early promises, tensions between Aguinaldo and the Americans soon emerged. This return marked the beginning of both hope and a complicated relationship between the Philippines and the U.S.
The Lead-Up to Aguinaldo’s Return
In the months before the Spanish-American War, American officials began reaching out to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was in exile in Hong Kong. They knew that his leadership could help them defeat Spain in the Philippines. Consuls from different cities, including Hong Kong, Singapore, and Manila, tried to secure Aguinaldo’s support. Each one of them saw the value in having the Filipino revolutionary forces on their side.
American Consuls Seek Aguinaldo’s Support
In Hong Kong, Aguinaldo was approached by Rounsenville Wildman, the U.S. consul, who told him that Admiral George Dewey needed his help to fight the Spanish. Around the same time, American consuls in Singapore and Manila also made efforts to reach out to Aguinaldo. They promised that if Aguinaldo helped the U.S., the Philippines would be granted independence once Spain was defeated. These promises gave Aguinaldo hope that freedom for the Philippines was near.
Language Barriers and the Role of Howard W. Bray
One of the main challenges during these negotiations was the language barrier. None of the American consuls spoke Tagalog, Aguinaldo’s native language, and Aguinaldo spoke poor Spanish. To bridge the gap, a British businessman named Howard W. Bray stepped in as an interpreter. Bray, who spoke both Tagalog and English, helped communicate between Aguinaldo and the Americans, making the discussions possible.
Promises of Independence
Aguinaldo was led to believe that the U.S. would support the Philippines in its quest for independence. The Americans assured him that once Spain was defeated, the Filipino people would no longer be under Spanish rule. This promise was a key factor in Aguinaldo’s decision to return to the Philippines and fight alongside the Americans. At the time, Aguinaldo believed that the U.S. was acting in good faith and that the future of his country was secure.
Aguinaldo’s Return to the Philippines
On May 19, 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines after years of exile. He arrived in Manila aboard the American revenue cutter McCulloch, along with thirteen of his closest staff members. The Americans had called him back to lead the Filipino resistance against Spanish forces. Aguinaldo’s return was a pivotal moment, as many Filipinos saw it as a step toward gaining their independence.
Resuming Command of Filipino Rebel Forces
Once he arrived, Aguinaldo quickly took charge of the Filipino rebel forces. Many fighters had been waiting for his leadership, and his return boosted their morale. Aguinaldo’s primary goal was to continue the fight against the Spanish, who still held control over Manila. With Aguinaldo back in command, Filipino troops began organizing and planning their next moves, hoping for a decisive victory.
Interaction with Admiral George Dewey
Shortly after his arrival, Aguinaldo met with U.S. Admiral George Dewey. Dewey had led the successful U.S. naval attack on the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay just weeks before Aguinaldo’s return. However, their communication was difficult. Dewey only spoke Spanish, a language Aguinaldo struggled with, and there was no interpreter present to help them communicate effectively.
Years later, both men would give different accounts of their discussions. Aguinaldo claimed that Dewey had promised U.S. support for Philippine independence, while Dewey would later deny ever making such a commitment. This lack of clear communication would lead to confusion and distrust between the two sides, setting the stage for future conflicts between the Filipino forces and the Americans.
The Establishment of a Dictatorial Government
Just days after his return to the Philippines, Emilio Aguinaldo took a significant step in leading the country’s fight for independence. On May 24, 1898, he declared the establishment of a temporary dictatorial government. Aguinaldo believed that this move was necessary to create a strong and unified leadership as they continued their battle against Spanish rule. By taking full control of the government, Aguinaldo could better coordinate the military efforts of the Filipino forces and manage the growing momentum for independence.
Plans for Philippine Independence
Aguinaldo’s declaration of a dictatorial government was not meant to be permanent. It was a temporary measure while plans were made to proclaim Philippine independence. He and his advisers believed that once independence from Spain was achieved, they could quickly transition to a democratic government.
In the meantime, the dictatorial government provided the structure needed to organize the country’s forces and prepare for the formal declaration of independence. Aguinaldo’s vision was to establish a free and democratic Philippines, where the people would have a say in how they were governed, but he understood that immediate, decisive leadership was required during the ongoing war.
Rising Tensions with the United States
As the fight against Spanish forces continued, tensions between Emilio Aguinaldo and the United States began to grow. Although the Americans initially welcomed Aguinaldo’s support, it soon became clear that their goals did not align. The U.S. Navy, concerned about making any commitments to the Filipino forces, issued instructions to Admiral George Dewey to avoid formal alliances with Aguinaldo. This marked the beginning of a strained relationship between the two leaders.
Dewey’s Policy of Distance
Admiral Dewey had already made up his mind about Aguinaldo and his advisers before receiving these orders. He maintained a policy of keeping his distance from the Filipino leader, believing it would be unwise to collaborate too closely. Dewey did not trust Aguinaldo’s long-term intentions and preferred to focus on the immediate goal of defeating the Spanish without getting entangled in Filipino efforts for independence. While Aguinaldo believed they were working together, Dewey saw the Filipino forces as useful only for their temporary military assistance.
Dewey’s Dismissive Attitude Toward Filipinos
Dewey’s attitude toward the Filipinos was dismissive, and this further strained relations. In his communications with Washington, Dewey referred to the Filipinos as “the Indians” and assured U.S. officials that he would keep them out of Manila. He promised to enter the city himself and prevent Aguinaldo’s troops from taking control. For Aguinaldo, who believed the U.S. was an ally in their struggle for independence, this growing distance and lack of support from Dewey were deeply concerning. The tensions that emerged during this time would only grow as it became clear that the U.S. had no intention of recognizing Philippine independence.
Aguinaldo’s Military Success
After Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and resumed command, his forces quickly made significant military gains. In a matter of weeks, Aguinaldo’s troops successfully surrounded Manila, cutting off key Spanish positions. They captured crucial areas, including the Manila waterworks, and blocked access to the Pasig River, preventing Spanish reinforcements from entering or escaping the capital.
Control Over Most of the Philippines
Beyond Manila, Aguinaldo’s forces gained control over much of the Philippines. By early June 1898, nearly the entire archipelago was under Filipino control, with the exception of the Muslim regions in Mindanao and nearby islands. These areas maintained a degree of independence and were not yet fully integrated into Aguinaldo’s revolutionary movement. However, Aguinaldo’s success in other parts of the country demonstrated the strength of the Filipino resistance and the widespread support for independence.
Holding the Line Against Spanish Troops
While Aguinaldo’s troops managed to surround Manila, they continued to apply pressure on the remaining Spanish forces trapped within the city. With no arms or resources provided by the Americans, Aguinaldo’s 12,000 troops held their ground, keeping the Spanish soldiers bottled up. They maintained this siege while awaiting American reinforcements, who would eventually arrive to join the final push against Spain. Throughout this period, Aguinaldo’s military strategy and leadership were key to weakening the Spanish presence in the Philippines.
Concerns over U.S. Commitment
As the conflict against Spain continued, Emilio Aguinaldo began to have serious doubts about the United States’ commitment to Philippine independence. Although he had been led to believe that the Americans were allies in their struggle for freedom, the lack of any formal agreement left him uneasy. Aguinaldo had expected the U.S. to support the Philippines in becoming an independent nation once Spain was defeated, but as time passed, he noticed the Americans were avoiding making any solid promises. This growing uncertainty created a sense of mistrust between the Filipino leader and his supposed American allies.
Historian John Foreman’s Perspective
Historian John Foreman, who studied the early period of the Philippine-American conflict, noted that Aguinaldo and his followers were overly trusting of the verbal promises made by the Americans. Foreman pointed out that the Filipinos were “so completely carried away by the humanitarian avowals” of the United States, believing that the world’s greatest republic would naturally support their independence. However, this trust was misplaced, as there was no written agreement to hold the U.S. to its word. In hindsight, this over-reliance on mere verbal assurances left the Filipinos vulnerable to future betrayal.
U.S. Media and International Presence in Manila
As tensions unfolded in Manila, the situation attracted attention from foreign nations and the press. Vessels from countries such as Britain, Germany, France, and Japan began arriving in Manila Bay, claiming they were there to protect their citizens in the city. However, these nations also had other interests in the region, closely monitoring the situation between the U.S., Spain, and the Filipino forces. Their presence reflected the global stakes of the conflict, as various powers were eager to take advantage of any potential shift in control over the Philippines.
The German Fleet’s Provocations
Among the foreign fleets, the German ships were the most provocative. Germany sent a fleet of five ships, led by Vice Admiral Otto von Diederichs, under the pretense of safeguarding German interests in the Philippines. However, their actions suggested a more aggressive agenda. The German fleet frequently ignored naval customs, refusing to salute the U.S. flag and performing unauthorized activities like taking soundings of the harbor and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish forces. These provocations raised concerns that Germany might be positioning itself to make a claim on the Philippines if the conflict gave them an opening.
Dewey’s Response to the Germans
Admiral George Dewey, leading the U.S. naval forces, did not take these provocations lightly. Despite the German fleet’s aggressive behavior, Dewey managed the situation with firmness. He warned Vice Admiral von Diederichs that if the German activities continued, the U.S. would be forced to respond with force. Dewey’s threat effectively called Germany’s bluff, and von Diederichs eventually backed down, avoiding a potential international incident. Dewey’s decisive handling of the situation ensured that foreign powers, particularly Germany, did not interfere with U.S. operations in Manila during this critical period of the war.
Dewey’s Background and Rise to Prominence
Born in Montpelier, Vermont, on December 26, 1837, George Dewey had a long and distinguished naval career. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis in 1858 and served with distinction during the American Civil War, including under Admiral David Farragut at the Battle of New Orleans. Dewey continued to rise through the ranks, and by February 28, 1896, he was promoted to Commodore.
In November 1897, Dewey was appointed as the commander of the U.S. Asiatic Squadron, largely due to the influence of political allies like Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy. This appointment placed him in a prime position to lead U.S. forces in the Pacific during the Spanish-American War. His decisive victory at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, cemented his reputation as a military hero.
Recognition of Dewey’s Leadership
For his leadership and success at Manila Bay, Dewey was widely celebrated in the United States. He was awarded the Dewey Medal, which was specially created to honor the officers and sailors who served under his command during the battle. His victory also led to his promotion to the rank of Admiral of the Navy, a unique honor that no one else in U.S. history has ever held. Dewey’s legacy as one of the most prominent figures in American naval history remains tied to his actions during the Spanish-American War, though his later reflections on Aguinaldo revealed the complexities of the U.S.-Philippine relationship during that period.
Emilio Aguinaldo – The Man and Leader
Emilio Aguinaldo was born on March 22, 1869, in Cavite, Philippines. He rose to prominence as a revolutionary leader during the Filipino-Spanish conflict, joining the Katipunan in 1896 and leading successful battles against the Spanish. His key victories in the Battles of Imus and Binakayan made him a national hero and leader of the independence movement.
Aguinaldo initially believed in Admiral Dewey’s promises of U.S. support for Philippine
independence, but he grew disillusioned when the Americans refused to recognize their sovereignty after the Spanish defeat.
After the war, Aguinaldo surrendered to the Americans in 1901. He lived a quiet life afterward, raising a family and staying involved in public affairs. Aguinaldo passed away on February 6, 1964, at the age of 95.
Conclusion
Emilio Aguinaldo’s return to the Philippines marked a crucial moment in the country’s fight for independence. While he believed the U.S. would support their freedom, the reality turned out to be more complex and disappointing. Despite the challenges and eventual betrayal, Aguinaldo’s efforts inspired future generations of Filipinos to continue the struggle for independence, which they eventually achieved. His leadership and legacy remain important in the history of the Philippines.